These Muslim scholars were polymaths, mastering multiple fields of study simultaneously. Among them was Al-Khwarizmi, who excelled in mathematics, astronomy, and geography; Al-Kindi, who was proficient in philosophy, mathematics, medicine, physics, optics, astronomy, and metallurgy; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), who not only possessed deep knowledge in medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy but also served as a foundational figure in these disciplines; and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who mastered philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy, and theology.
Many
of us may not be aware that the first world map was created by a Muslim.
Research reveals that a comprehensive world map, produced in 1513, was compiled
by a Muslim navigator named Piri Reis. The map—drawn on a piece of deerskin
measuring 90×65 cm—is remarkably complete and detailed. In fact, when compared
to modern satellite imagery from space, the shapes depicted are strikingly
similar. Piri Reis synthesized maps from travelers of various nations, drawing
upon 34 distinct sources: 20 maps dating back to the era of Alexander, 8 maps
by Muslim geographers, 4 maps from Portuguese sources, and 1 map attributed to
Columbus.
Initially,
historians were skeptical about the existence of such a map. Earlier maps
typically only depicted the region around the Middle East with any clarity,
while other areas—such as the continents of Africa and the Americas—were
represented quite differently. It was only when modern satellite imagery was
compared with this ancient map—created by a Turkish Muslim—that its remarkable
accuracy and intricate detail became undeniable.
In
the realm of economics, a book by Schumpeter provides an account of the
historical development of global economics. An interesting point is that
following the end of the golden age of Greco-Roman civilization in the 8th
century AD, very few significant economic ideas or theories emerged. This
period lasted until the 13th century, a time marked by the era of St. Thomas
Aquinas (1225–1274 AD). Throughout these roughly five centuries, very few
economic theories or works were produced by thinkers in the Western world.
Schumpeter referred to this as the "Great Gap."
Upon
closer examination, this period—often referred to as the "Dark Ages"
in the Western world—was a time when the Church restricted the work of
scientists and scholars. In stark contrast, this same era marked a "Golden
Age" for the Islamic world, a time when numerous Muslim scholars produced
significant scientific contributions, including major advancements in the field
of economics.
Prominent
Muslim economists who produced groundbreaking work include Ibn Taymiyyah,
Ibn Rushd, Ibn Khaldun, and Al-Ghazali. Ibn Taymiyyah developed a theory
regarding "price volatility"—the fluctuations of market prices—which
later served as the foundation for the modern law of supply and demand.
Ibn
Rushd introduced a fourth function of money: as a store of purchasing power,
emphasizing that consumers can utilize money at any time to acquire the
necessities of life. Previously, Aristotle had identified only three functions
of money: as a medium of exchange, a unit of account (measure of value), and a
reserve for future consumption. Furthermore, Ibn Rushd challenged Aristotle’s
theory regarding the value of money, arguing that its value should not be
subject to arbitrary change.
Another
notable figure, Ibn Khaldun, formulated theories on social and economic
development that directly relate to human welfare. Umer Chapra (2000)
notes that Ibn Khaldun provided vital insights into economics by highlighting
the essential role of the state in social development. Ibn Khaldun argued that
the Sharia (Islamic law) cannot be upheld without the involvement of the state
or its rulers, while conversely, a state cannot function effectively without
the implementation of Sharia. He posited that a state or government cannot
operate properly without a khalifah (leader/ruler), and that the survival of
such a leader—or indeed of humanity itself—cannot be sustained without the
presence of capital or wealth (al-mal). Wealth is generated through significant
development (imarat), which cannot take place without justice—a criterion by
which God (Allah SWT) will ultimately judge humanity. Consequently, according
to Ibn Khaldun, the implementation of Sharia within a state cannot be sustained
unless it is grounded in social and economic justice.
Ibn
Khaldun is also a seminal figure in the field of sociology. In the libraries of
major universities, his work, Al-Muqaddimah, is shelved alongside the writings
of other foundational figures in sociology. In certain respects, his ideas
parallel those of classical sociologists such as Émile Durkheim. He theorized
the developmental stages of human civilization and political systems, the
nature and roles of various professions, and the function of trade within a
society’s economy.
Another
prominent thinker, Al-Ghazali, posited that human needs fall into three
categories: primary needs (daruriyyah), secondary needs (hajiyyat), and luxury
needs (tahsiniyyat). This theory of a hierarchy of needs was later adopted by
William Nassau, who categorized human requirements into basic needs
(necessities), secondary needs (decencies), and tertiary needs (luxuries).
Meanwhile,
Ibnu Sina—known in the West as Avicenna—was a prominent Muslim scholar
in the field of medicine. His magnum opus, The Canon of Medicine (al-Qanun fi
al-Tibb), served as a medical textbook in European universities for over five
centuries. He was also a geologist. Born in the region of Bukhara, Central
Asia, he memorized the Quran by the age of 10 and became a physician by 17. A
true polymath, Ibnu Sina also made significant contributions to astronomy,
physics, mathematics, chemistry, and even music. In the realm of geology, his
findings in mineralogy inspired the principle of superposition, later
formulated by the Danish physicist Nicolaus Steno in 1669.
Ibnu
Sina frequently corresponded with another great Muslim natural scientist, Al-Biruni.
Born in present-day Uzbekistan in 973 CE, Abu Raihan Muhammad Al-Biruni
authored over 200 books based on his observations and experiments—a body of
work spanning approximately 13,000 folio pages. Historians refer to this golden
age of science as the "Age of Al-Biruni." In geology, his most
significant contribution was in the field of mineralogy, titled Gems (Kitab
al-Jamahir). In it, he described more than 100 minerals, detailing their
varieties, origins, characteristics, and economic value.
He
also developed a method to accurately determine the specific gravity of 18
important minerals. In the field of geomorphology, Al-Biruni studied the
characteristics of the Ganges River, tracing its course from its source in the
Himalayas to the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta on the shores of the Indian Ocean. In
the field of paleontology, Al-Biruni observed fossils embedded in rock strata
in India and concluded that they were of marine origin—a principle that, in the
Western world, would later be attributed to Leonardo da Vinci in the 16th
century. Al-Biruni produced a wide array of original works across various
disciplines, including geography, cartography, botany, astronomy, physics,
mathematics, medicine, sociology, and history. Some historians even regard Al-Biruni
as one of the greatest scientists in human history.
His
book, India (Kitab al-Hind)—which served as a primary reference for
researchers of India for six centuries—was the product of his 20-year residence
in the country. It provides an exhaustive and detailed examination of the
geography, society, culture, languages, and religions of the Indian people. His
profound passion for knowledge is further reflected in his statement: "God
is All-Knowing and does not love ignorance." In addition to these
scholars, there were many others: Salman al-Farisi, who devised the strategy of
using trenches in warfare and developed siege engines; Miqdad ibn Amr, a
pioneer of the first modern cavalry units; al-Nadim, a pioneer in the creation
of cultural encyclopedias; Ma’mun al-Rashid, who founded the world’s
first public library, known as Dar al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad; and
Nizam al-Mulk, who established the Nizamiyyah, considered one of the world’s
first modern universities.
There
was also al-Ghazali, who pioneered the classification of knowledge based on its
social function; al-Kindi, an encyclopedist who authored 270 books;
al-Farabi, an expert in music and Greek philosophy; Ibn Tufayl, a
physician and philosopher who wrote one of the earliest philosophical novels, Risalat
Hayy ibn Yaqzan; and Ibn al-Muqaffa, who authored an encyclopedia on animals. Abu
al-Wafa’ advanced the fields of trigonometry and spherical geometry,
developing tables for sine and tangent functions and identifying variations in
the moon’s motion. Omar Khayyam succeeded in solving cubic and quartic
equations using conic sections—a sophisticated application of algebra.
Furthermore, the astronomer al-Battani calculated the distance from the Earth
to the Sun, developed instruments to measure gravitational force as well as
latitude and arcs on a globe with a precision of three decimal places, demonstrated
that the Earth rotates on its axis, and measured the Earth’s circumference.
In
the field of mining, al-Razi discovered methods for refining crude oil,
while the Banu Musa brothers authored Kitab al-Hiyal (The Book of Ingenious
Devices), which describes 100 types of machines—including automatic water-tank
fillers, water wheels, underground canal systems, metal-processing techniques,
mining equipment, safety lamps for mines, and methods for surveying and constructing
underground mines.
In
the realm of music, al-Mawsili (who passed away in 850 CE) is recognized as an
expert in classical music and the foundational principles of music theory.
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